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Old Testament · Historical narrative

The First Book of Samuel: Author, Context and Complete Study

First Samuel tells how Israel moved from the judges to the kings: the prophet Samuel, the rise and fall of King Saul, and the anointing of young David. It shows that the Lord raises up the humble and looks at the heart, not at outward appearance.

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What is 1 Samuel about?

First Samuel tells the story of Israel's transition from the time of the judges to the monarchy through three men. Samuel, born to the once-barren Hannah, becomes the last judge and a great prophet (chapters 1-7). Israel asks for a king like the nations, and Saul is anointed but rejected for disobedience (8-15). David, a shepherd from Bethlehem, is anointed, defeats Goliath and flees from Saul's jealousy until Saul dies on Mount Gilboa (16-31). The book teaches that the Lord looks on the heart (1 Samuel 16:7).

Author
Anonymous. Jewish tradition says Samuel wrote the early part and the prophets Gad and Nathan completed it (compare 1 Chronicles 29:29); the final form came after Samuel's death.
Date
Events c. 1100-1010 BC, from Samuel's birth to Saul's death; probably compiled after the kingdom divided in 930 BC (see 27:6).
First readers
Israel under its kings, who needed to understand how the monarchy began, why Saul's house fell and why God chose David and his line.
Genre
Historical narrative
Chapters
31 chapters
Key verse
1 Samuel 16:7

Historical context

The book opens at the close of the period of the judges, when there was no king in Israel and everyone did what was right in his own eyes (Judges 21:25). The priesthood at Shiloh was corrupt under Eli's sons, the word of the Lord was rare (3:1), and the tribes had no central government. The great powers of earlier centuries, Egypt and the Hittites, had declined, and Assyria had not yet risen, which left room for small peoples to fight over Canaan.

The main threat was the Philistines, part of the Sea Peoples who settled on the southern coast in the 12th century BC and are pictured in Egyptian reliefs of Ramesses III. They were organized in five cities, Gaza, Ashkelon, Ashdod, Gath and Ekron (6:17), and controlled iron-working, so that Israel had no blacksmiths (13:19-22). Their pressure, together with the Ammonite attack on Jabesh-gilead (11:1-11), pushed Israel to demand a king. Saul reigned roughly 1050-1010 BC, and the book ends around 1010 BC, when David is about thirty (2 Samuel 5:4).

Geographical context

Most of the story takes place in the central hill country. Samuel is born in Ramah (Ramathaim) in Ephraim, serves at the tabernacle in Shiloh and later judges Israel on a circuit of Bethel, Gilgal and Mizpah (7:16-17). The ark is captured near Aphek and Ebenezer, carried to the Philistine cities of Ashdod, Gath and Ekron, and returned by way of Beth-shemesh to Kiriath-jearim (4-7). Saul rules from his hometown of Gibeah in Benjamin, and Jonathan's daring raid takes place at the pass of Michmash (14:4-5).

David comes from Bethlehem in Judah and fights Goliath in the Valley of Elah, a corridor between Philistia and the hills (17:1-3). As a fugitive he hides in the cave of Adullam, the wilderness of Ziph, the strongholds of En-gedi by the Dead Sea and finally Ziklag in Philistine territory (22-27). The book ends in the north: Saul consults a medium at En-dor and dies on Mount Gilboa, and his body is hung on the wall of Beth-shan (28; 31).

Why does the book of 1 Samuel exist?

First Samuel explains how and why Israel became a kingdom. The people's request for a king like the nations was, in part, a rejection of the Lord as their King (8:7), yet God answered it and used it for his purposes. The book contrasts two kings: Saul, chosen by outward appearance and rejected because he would not obey (15:22-23), and David, chosen because the Lord saw his heart (16:7). For later generations living under David's descendants, it showed that the dynasty in Jerusalem rested on God's choice, not on David's ambition, since David repeatedly refused to seize the throne by force (24:6; 26:9-11).

The book also teaches what the Lord values in any leader or person: humble trust, attentive listening to God's word and obedience from the heart. Hannah's song sets the tone, celebrating the God who brings down the proud and raises up the lowly (2:7-8). The rest of the Bible depends on the story begun here: the covenant with David in 2 Samuel 7 and the promise of the Messiah, the anointed king from David's line.

Outline of 1 Samuel

  1. Chapters 1-3

    Hannah's prayer and Samuel's call

    Barren Hannah prays at Shiloh, gives birth to Samuel and dedicates him to the Lord, then sings of God who exalts the lowly. Eli's sons corrupt the priesthood, and the boy Samuel hears the Lord's call in the night and becomes a recognized prophet.

  2. Chapters 4-7

    The ark lost and returned

    Israel takes the ark into battle and loses it to the Philistines; Eli and his sons die. The ark humbles Dagon and brings plagues on the Philistine cities until it is sent back. Samuel calls Israel to repentance at Mizpah and sets up the stone Ebenezer.

  3. Chapters 8-12

    Israel asks for a king

    Samuel's sons are corrupt, and the elders demand a king like the nations. God grants the request with a warning. Saul is anointed in private, chosen by lot at Mizpah and confirmed after rescuing Jabesh-gilead, and Samuel gives a farewell address.

  4. Chapters 13-15

    Saul's failures and rejection

    Saul offers a sacrifice without waiting for Samuel, while Jonathan wins a daring victory at Michmash. Saul's rash oath nearly costs Jonathan his life. When Saul spares Agag and the best of the Amalekite spoil, Samuel announces that the Lord has rejected him as king.

  5. Chapters 16-20

    David anointed, Goliath defeated

    Samuel anoints David, the youngest son of Jesse, in Bethlehem. David soothes Saul with music, defeats Goliath and wins Jonathan's friendship and the people's praise. Saul's jealousy turns murderous, and Jonathan helps David escape.

  6. Chapters 21-26

    David the fugitive

    David flees to Nob, Gath and the cave of Adullam, gathering four hundred men. Saul massacres the priests of Nob. Twice David has the chance to kill Saul, at En-gedi and in the wilderness of Ziph, but spares the Lord's anointed; Abigail keeps him from shedding blood.

  7. Chapters 27-31

    Ziklag, En-dor and Gilboa

    David lives among the Philistines at Ziklag and recovers his families from the Amalekites. Saul, abandoned by God, consults a medium at En-dor. He and Jonathan die in battle on Mount Gilboa, and the men of Jabesh-gilead bury their bodies.

Famous passages in 1 Samuel

  • 1 Samuel 1:9-28

    Hannah's prayer for a son

    Hannah pours out her soul before the Lord at Shiloh, praying so silently that Eli thinks she is drunk (1:13). She vows to give her son to the Lord, gives birth to Samuel and keeps her promise. Her story is a favorite of people waiting on God in prayer, and her song in 2:1-10 is echoed in Mary's song (Luke 1:46-55).

    Study 1 Samuel 1 →

  • 1 Samuel 3:1-21

    The Lord calls the boy Samuel

    At a time when the word of the Lord was rare, God calls Samuel in the night as he sleeps near the ark; three times the boy runs to Eli, until the old priest teaches him to answer that the Lord's servant is listening (3:9-10). The first message is judgment on Eli's house, and all Israel comes to know that Samuel is a prophet (3:20).

    Study 1 Samuel 3 →

  • 1 Samuel 8:4-22

    Give us a king

    The elders ask Samuel for a king to judge them like all the nations. The Lord tells Samuel that the people have rejected not him but God himself (8:7), and Samuel warns how a king will take their sons, daughters, fields and harvests (8:11-18). The people insist, and the monarchy begins.

    Study 1 Samuel 8 →

  • 1 Samuel 15:22-23

    To obey is better than sacrifice

    Saul spares the Amalekite king and the best animals, claiming they are for sacrifice. Samuel answers that the Lord delights in obedience more than in burnt offerings and that rebellion is like divination (15:22-23). Because Saul rejected the word of the Lord, God rejects him as king.

    Study 1 Samuel 15 →

  • 1 Samuel 16:1-13

    David anointed in Bethlehem

    Samuel goes to Jesse's house to anoint a new king. Impressed by the tall Eliab, he is told that man looks on the outward appearance but the Lord looks on the heart (16:7). The youngest son, David, is called in from the sheep, anointed, and the Spirit of the Lord rushes upon him (16:13).

    Study 1 Samuel 16 →

  • 1 Samuel 17:1-58

    David and Goliath

    For forty days the Philistine champion Goliath of Gath defies Israel in the Valley of Elah. The young David refuses Saul's armor, takes five smooth stones and declares that the battle is the Lord's (17:45-47). One stone from his sling brings the giant down. It is the most famous underdog story in history.

    Study 1 Samuel 17 →

  • 1 Samuel 24:1-22

    David spares Saul in the cave

    At En-gedi Saul enters the very cave where David and his men are hiding. David's men urge him to kill Saul, but he only cuts off a corner of Saul's robe and even regrets that (24:4-6). He refuses to harm the Lord's anointed, and Saul weeps and admits that David will be king (24:20).

    Study 1 Samuel 24 →

  • 1 Samuel 28:3-25

    Saul and the medium of En-dor

    Facing the Philistines with no answer from God, Saul disguises himself and asks a medium to call up the dead Samuel, though he himself had expelled mediums from the land. Samuel appears and announces Saul's defeat and death the next day (28:19). The eerie scene is one of the most debated in the Old Testament.

    Study 1 Samuel 28 →

Main themes

God reverses human fortunes
Hannah sings that the Lord brings low and exalts, lifting the poor from the dust (2:6-8). The barren woman gives birth, the boy outranks the priest's sons, the shepherd replaces the king and the giant falls to a youth with a sling.
The Lord as Israel's true King
Asking for a king like the nations meant rejecting God's rule (8:7; 12:12). Yet God gives a king and sets terms: king and people will prosper only if they fear and obey the Lord (12:14-15, 24-25).
Obedience from the heart
Saul performs religious acts but disobeys God's clear commands (13:13; 15:22-23). David, though flawed, seeks the Lord and asks his guidance repeatedly (23:2, 4; 30:8). God looks for a heart that listens and obeys (13:14; 16:7).
The word of the Lord and the prophet
The book begins when God's word was rare (3:1) and shows Samuel as the prophet who anoints and rebukes kings. Kings in Israel were not above God's word; they were to be guided and corrected by it.
Faithful friendship and loyalty
Jonathan loves David as his own soul and makes a covenant with him (18:1-3; 20:16-17), choosing God's plan over his own claim to the throne (23:16-17). Loyalty to God and to his anointed shapes the whole story.
Waiting for God's timing
David is anointed long before he reigns and refuses to take the throne by force, sparing Saul twice (24:6; 26:9-11). The book teaches trust in God to fulfill his promises in his own way and time.

Main characters

Hannah
Elkanah's beloved wife, barren and provoked by her rival Peninnah. She prays at Shiloh, gives birth to Samuel and gives him to the Lord's service. Her song (2:1-10) celebrates God's power to reverse fortunes, and the Lord later gives her three more sons and two daughters (2:21).
Eli
Priest at Shiloh who judged Israel forty years. He mentors Samuel but fails to restrain his wicked sons Hophni and Phinehas. At 98, on hearing that the ark has been captured, he falls backward and dies (4:15-18).
Samuel
Hannah's son, raised at the tabernacle, called by God as a boy. He is the last judge, a prophet and a priestly leader who anoints both Saul and David and confronts Saul's disobedience. His death is mourned by all Israel (25:1).
Saul
Son of Kish, a Benjamite, taller than everyone from the shoulders up (9:2). Israel's first king begins humbly and wins victories, but his impatience, disobedience and jealousy of David lead to his rejection. He dies on Mount Gilboa (31:4).
Jonathan
Saul's oldest son, a brave warrior who attacks the Philistine garrison at Michmash with only his armor-bearer (14:6). He loves David, makes a covenant with him, protects him from Saul and dies with his father at Gilboa.
David
Youngest son of Jesse of Bethlehem, a shepherd and musician anointed by Samuel. He kills Goliath, serves Saul, marries Michal and becomes a fugitive. He refuses to harm Saul and inquires of the Lord before acting.
Michal
Saul's younger daughter, who loves David and becomes his wife (18:20, 27). She helps him escape by lowering him through a window and placing an idol in his bed (19:11-17). Saul later gives her to another man (25:44).
Abigail
The wise wife of the foolish Nabal of Carmel. She meets David with gifts and persuades him not to take revenge (25:23-31). After Nabal's death she becomes David's wife.
Goliath
The Philistine champion from Gath, heavily armed, who challenges Israel to single combat for forty days. David kills him with a sling stone and then cuts off his head with the giant's own sword (17:49-51).

In-depth study of 1 Samuel

Introduction

First Samuel is the book of the great transition. It opens with a barren woman praying in the tabernacle at Shiloh and ends with a dead king on the walls of Beth-shan. In between, Israel moves from the loose tribal life of the judges to a monarchy, and three men stand at the center: Samuel, the prophet who anoints kings; Saul, the first king, impressive and tragic; and David, the shepherd chosen by God.

The book is full of stories that children learn early and adults never exhaust: Hannah's prayer, the call of the boy Samuel, the ark among the Philistines, David and Goliath, the friendship of David and Jonathan, David sparing Saul in the cave and the dark night at En-dor. Behind them all runs one question: who is Israel's true King, and what kind of leader does he choose? The answer comes in the book's best-known verse: the Lord does not see as man sees; he looks on the heart (1 Samuel 16:7).

Who wrote 1 Samuel and when?

One book, two parts

In the Hebrew Bible, 1 and 2 Samuel were a single book named after Samuel, the prophet who anoints both Saul and David. The ancient Greek translation divided it, and divided Kings too, calling the four scrolls the books of Kingdoms. Hebrew Bibles adopted the division only in the late Middle Ages.

Authorship

The book does not name its author. The Talmud says Samuel wrote it and that Gad and Nathan completed it, and 1 Chronicles 29:29 refers to the records of Samuel the seer, Nathan the prophet and Gad the seer. Samuel can hardly have written everything, since his death is reported in 25:1. The book seems to draw on prophetic records and on sources such as the Book of Jashar, quoted in 2 Samuel 1:18.

Clues to the date

Two notes help. First Samuel 9:9 explains that a prophet used to be called a seer, which means the writer lived after that word had fallen out of use. And 27:6 says that Ziklag has belonged to the kings of Judah to this day, which assumes a separate kingdom of Judah, after 930 BC. Many evangelical scholars date the composition between the 10th and 8th centuries BC; many others see its final form as part of a larger history edited during or after the exile.

Literary style and structure

Three lives that overlap

The book is arranged around Samuel (1-7), Saul (8-15) and David (16-31), but the stories overlap on purpose. Samuel's rise is told beside the fall of Eli's house, and David's rise beside Saul's decline. The narrator invites comparison: the faithful boy against the corrupt priests, the humble shepherd against the jealous king.

Hannah's song as overture

The song in 2:1-10 announces the book's themes before they unfold: God breaks the bows of the mighty, feeds the hungry, makes the barren fruitful and raises the poor to sit with princes. It ends with a surprising line about the Lord giving strength to his king and exalting his anointed (2:10), before Israel has any king at all.

Masterful storytelling

The narrator rarely comments and lets actions and dialogue speak. Repetition carries meaning: Samuel runs to Eli three times before he answers the Lord (3:4-10), David spares Saul twice (24; 26), and the women's song about Saul's thousands and David's ten thousands echoes through the story (18:7; 21:11; 29:5). Small details carry great weight, such as the corner of Saul's robe in David's hand (24:4) and the spear and water jug taken from beside Saul's head (26:12).

1 Samuel in the story of the Bible

First Samuel answers the refrain of Judges, that in those days there was no king in Israel (Judges 21:25). Deuteronomy had foreseen a king and set limits for him (Deuteronomy 17:14-20), and Genesis had promised that the scepter would not depart from Judah (Genesis 49:10). Saul is a Benjamite; David is from Judah, and the story moves toward God's chosen king.

The story continues directly in 2 Samuel, where David becomes king and God promises him an everlasting dynasty (2 Samuel 7:12-16). Many psalms are linked by their titles to episodes in 1 Samuel, among them Psalm 34 (David before the Philistine king, 21:10-15), Psalm 52 (Doeg the Edomite, 22:9), Psalm 54 (the Ziphites, 23:19), Psalm 57 and Psalm 142 (the cave) and Psalm 59 (Saul's men watching David's house, 19:11).

The New Testament draws on the book in several ways. Mary's song (Luke 1:46-55) echoes Hannah's. Luke describes the boy Jesus growing in favor with God and people (Luke 2:52), much as the boy Samuel did (1 Samuel 2:26). Jesus points to David eating the holy bread at Nob to show that the Sabbath was made for people (Mark 2:25-27). Peter names Samuel at the head of the prophets who foretold these days (Acts 3:24), and Paul summarizes the whole book in Acts 13:20-22.

1 Samuel and Jesus Christ

  • The Lord's anointed. The Hebrew word for anointed is the root of Messiah, and the Greek equivalent is Christ. Hannah's song is the first passage to speak of the Lord's king and his anointed (2:10), and the book shows Samuel pouring oil on Saul (10:1) and David (16:13). Jesus is the Anointed One to whom these kings point.
  • The king from Bethlehem. David, the overlooked youngest son of Jesse, is anointed in Bethlehem (16:1-13). Centuries later the Son of David is born in the same town (Luke 2:4-11; Matthew 2:1-6).
  • The shepherd king. David learned to rescue sheep from lions and bears (17:34-36). Jesus calls himself the good shepherd who lays down his life for the sheep (John 10:11).
  • One champion for all. In the Valley of Elah one representative fights for the whole people, and his victory becomes theirs (17:51-52). The New Testament does not comment on the duel, but the pattern anticipates Christ, who triumphed over the powers of evil on behalf of his people (Colossians 2:15; Hebrews 2:14-15).
  • The rejected king and the chosen one. Paul moves straight from Saul's removal and David's choice to Jesus: from David's offspring God has brought to Israel a Savior (Acts 13:21-23).
  • The faithful priest. God promises to raise up a faithful priest who will do what is in his heart and mind (2:35). It was first fulfilled in priests such as Zadok, and Christians see its fullness in Christ, the faithful high priest (Hebrews 2:17).

Interpretive challenges

How old was Saul and how long did he reign?

The Hebrew text of 13:1 seems damaged: read literally, it says Saul was one year old when he became king and reigned two years. Most translations mark the missing numbers or supply them from other sources. Paul says Saul reigned forty years (Acts 13:21), which likely includes his son Ish-bosheth's short reign or is a round number for a generation.

Did Saul already know David?

In chapter 16 David becomes Saul's musician and armor-bearer, yet after the battle with Goliath Saul asks whose son the young man is (17:55-58). Some suggest Saul wanted to know about David's family because he had promised to reward the victor's father's house (17:25); others note that the narrator arranges stories by theme as well as by time, or that Saul's troubled condition explains the lapse. The ancient Greek translation has a shorter form of chapters 17-18.

Does God change his mind?

The Lord says he regrets making Saul king (15:11, 35), yet Samuel says God will not lie or have regret, for he is not a man (15:29). The first statement expresses God's real sorrow over sin and his response to Saul's choices; the second affirms that God's character and purposes do not change. The same chapter holds both truths together.

An evil spirit from the Lord?

After the Spirit leaves Saul, a harmful spirit from the Lord torments him (16:14). The Old Testament presents God as sovereign over every spiritual power, able to use even evil spirits in judgment (compare Judges 9:23; 1 Kings 22:19-23), without being the author of evil himself.

Little-known facts

  • Samuel does not appear in 2 Samuel at all: his death is reported in 1 Samuel 25:1 and mentioned again in 28:3, and his only later appearance is the scene at En-dor.
  • The place name Ebenezer means stone of help. Samuel set up the stone after a victory, saying the Lord had helped them till then (7:12).
  • The obscure word pim in 13:21, the fee the Philistines charged to sharpen Israelite tools, was a mystery until archaeologists found small stone weights inscribed with it, weighing about two thirds of a shekel.
  • Saul, the future king, was found hiding among the baggage on the day he was chosen (10:22).
  • When the ark was returned, the Philistines sent five golden tumors and five golden mice, one for each of their five rulers (6:4).
  • David presented Saul with two hundred Philistine foreskins, double the price Saul had demanded for Michal (18:25-27).

How to study 1 Samuel

Reading plan

At one chapter a day, 1 Samuel takes a month. For a group, seven sessions follow the outline well: Samuel's birth and call (1-3), the ark (4-7), the request for a king (8-12), Saul's failures (13-15), David's rise (16-20), David in the wilderness (21-26) and the end of Saul (27-31).

What to look for

  • Contrasts between characters: Hannah and Peninnah, Samuel and Eli's sons, Saul and David, Abigail and Nabal.
  • How each leader responds to God's word, especially when it is inconvenient.
  • Who seeks the Lord's guidance before acting, and who does not.
  • The psalms linked to these events, read alongside the narrative.

Teaching it in a Sunday school class or small group

The book is ideal for teaching character. With children, tell the stories of Hannah, the boy Samuel, David and Goliath, and David sparing Saul, emphasizing that God looks at the heart. With youth groups, explore Jonathan's friendship, jealousy and how to wait for God's timing. With adults, discuss leadership: why Saul failed, why David refused to grasp power and what it means to obey rather than merely perform religious duties. Close each session by asking what the passage reveals about God as the true King.

1 Samuel chapter by chapter

Every chapter of 1 Samuel with a summary, key verses explained, themes, people, questions with answers and application.

Frequently asked questions about 1 Samuel

Who wrote 1 Samuel?

The book does not name its author. Jewish tradition in the Talmud says Samuel wrote the first part and the prophets Gad and Nathan completed it, and 1 Chronicles 29:29 mentions records of Samuel, Nathan and Gad. Since Samuel's death is reported in 25:1 and later events follow, others finished the work. Notes such as 27:6, which says Ziklag has belonged to the kings of Judah to this day, suggest it reached its final form after the kingdom divided.

When was 1 Samuel written?

Its events cover about a century, from Samuel's birth around 1100 BC to Saul's death around 1010 BC. The mention of the kings of Judah in 27:6 points to compilation after the division of the kingdom in 930 BC, using earlier prophetic records. Many scholars place the final editing of Samuel together with Kings, during or after the exile in the 6th century BC.

What is the main message of 1 Samuel?

God is the true King of his people. He raises up the humble and brings down the proud, as Hannah sings (2:7-8). He rejects Saul, who disobeyed, and chooses David, a man after his own heart (13:14; 16:7). Obedience and trust matter more than appearance, position or religious ritual (15:22).

How many chapters does 1 Samuel have and how is it organized?

First Samuel has 31 chapters arranged around three people: Samuel (1-7), from his birth to his judgeship; Saul (8-15), from Israel's request for a king to his rejection; and David and Saul together (16-31), from David's anointing and the victory over Goliath to Saul's death. In the Hebrew Bible, 1 and 2 Samuel were originally one book.

How tall was Goliath?

The standard Hebrew text gives Goliath's height as six cubits and a span (17:4), about 9 feet 9 inches. The Dead Sea Scrolls copy of Samuel and the ancient Greek translation read four cubits and a span, about 6 feet 9 inches, still a giant among men who averaged much less. Either way, his armor weighed about 125 pounds (5,000 shekels, 17:5).

Was it really Samuel who appeared to Saul at En-dor?

Interpreters differ. Many think God allowed Samuel himself to appear, since the medium is shocked (28:12) and the message of judgment comes true the next day. Others believe a deceiving spirit imitated Samuel, or that the medium staged the scene. All agree the passage condemns consulting the dead, which the law forbids (Deuteronomy 18:10-12); 1 Chronicles 10:13-14 lists it among the reasons Saul died.

Why did God reject Saul as king?

Saul disobeyed God's explicit commands twice. He offered a burnt offering at Gilgal instead of waiting for Samuel (13:8-14), and he spared King Agag and the best Amalekite livestock after being told to destroy them (15:1-23). His deeper problem was a heart that feared people more than God (15:24) and treated obedience as negotiable.

Why is David called a man after God's own heart?

Samuel tells Saul that the Lord has sought a man after his own heart to lead his people (13:14), and Paul repeats it in Acts 13:22. The phrase speaks of God's choice and of David's devotion: he trusted God, inquired of him and repented when confronted (Psalm 51). It does not mean David was sinless, as 2 Samuel 11 makes painfully clear.

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