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Old Testament · Historical narrative and law (Torah)

The Book of Exodus: Author, Context and Complete Study

Exodus tells how God freed Israel from slavery in Egypt through Moses, the plagues, the Passover and the crossing of the sea. At Mount Sinai he gave them his covenant and law, and he came to dwell among them in the tabernacle.

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What is Exodus about?

Exodus is about God rescuing Israel from slavery and bringing them to himself. Chapters 1-15 tell of Israel's oppression in Egypt, the call of Moses at the burning bush, the ten plagues, the Passover and the crossing of the sea. Chapters 16-40 follow the people to Mount Sinai, where God gives the Ten Commandments, makes a covenant with Israel, forgives the sin of the golden calf and fills the newly built tabernacle with his glory.

Author
Jewish and Christian tradition attributes Exodus to Moses. The book itself says Moses wrote down events and laws (17:14; 24:4; 34:27), and Jesus calls it the book of Moses (Mark 12:26).
Date
During the wilderness years on the traditional view; the exodus is dated c. 1446 BC (early date) or c. 1260 BC (late date).
First readers
The generation freed from Egypt and their children: Israel at Sinai and in the wilderness, learning who their Redeemer was and how to live as his covenant people.
Genre
Historical narrative and law (Torah)
Chapters
40 chapters
Key verse
Exodus 29:46

Historical context

Exodus begins centuries after Genesis ends. Jacob's descendants had multiplied in the land of Goshen until a new king who did not know Joseph saw them as a threat and forced them into hard labor, building the store cities of Pithom and Raamses (1:8-11). Exodus 12:40 says Israel lived in Egypt 430 years. Egypt was then the strongest power of the region, ruled by pharaohs honored as divine, who carried out great building projects with forced labor. Some historians connect the change of policy toward the Hebrews with the expulsion of the Hyksos, Semitic rulers of the Nile Delta, although the text does not say so.

The Pharaoh of the exodus is never named. Those who date the exodus around 1446 BC, following 1 Kings 6:1, think of a ruler of the Eighteenth Dynasty such as Thutmose III or Amenhotep II; those who prefer a date around 1260 BC point to Ramesses II, because of the city named Raamses. Either way, the book presents the conflict as more than politics: the plagues are judgments on all the gods of Egypt (12:12), showing that the Lord, not Pharaoh, is God.

Geographical context

Exodus moves from the fertile Nile Delta to the barren wilderness. Israel lives in Goshen, in the eastern delta, and labors at Pithom and Raamses (1:11). Moses flees to Midian, usually placed east of the Gulf of Aqaba, and meets God at Horeb, the mountain of God (3:1). The departure runs from Rameses to Succoth, then to Etham at the edge of the wilderness and to Pi-hahiroth by the sea (12:37; 13:20; 14:2), where Israel crosses the Yam Suph, traditionally the Red Sea; the Hebrew name can mean sea of reeds, and the exact location is debated.

From the sea the people pass through the wilderness of Shur, Marah, the oasis of Elim, the wilderness of Sin and Rephidim (15:22-17:1), until they camp before Mount Sinai in the third month (19:1). Tradition places Sinai at Jebel Musa in the south of the Sinai Peninsula, while some scholars propose sites in northwest Arabia. The mountain where God speaks and the tent where he dwells are the two centers of the second half of the book.

Why does the book of Exodus exist?

Exodus tells Israel how it became a nation and whose nation it is. The descendants of Abraham had become slaves; the book shows that God remembered his covenant (2:24), broke the power that enslaved them and brought them to himself (19:4). Every later generation of Israel would define itself by this event: the Passover kept the memory alive, and the law opens by naming the Lord as the God who brought them out of the house of slavery (20:2).

The book also answers a question that the rescue alone could not settle: how can a holy God live among a sinful people? The answer comes in three steps: a covenant with laws that shape a holy community (19-24), a tabernacle with priests and sacrifices where God dwells in the middle of the camp (25-31; 35-40), and, after the golden calf, the revelation that the Lord is merciful, gracious and forgiving (34:6-7). Exodus gives the Bible its basic vocabulary of salvation: slavery, Passover, lamb, blood, redemption, covenant, presence and glory.

Outline of Exodus

  1. Chapters 1-2

    Slavery in Egypt and the birth of Moses

    Israel multiplies and is enslaved; the midwives Shiphrah and Puah defy Pharaoh's order to kill the boys. Moses is saved in a basket on the Nile, raised by Pharaoh's daughter, flees to Midian after killing an Egyptian and marries Zipporah.

  2. Chapters 3-4

    The burning bush and the call of Moses

    At Horeb God speaks from a bush that burns without being consumed, reveals his name and sends Moses to free Israel. Moses objects five times; God gives him signs and Aaron as his spokesman, and Moses returns to Egypt.

  3. Chapters 5-11

    Moses before Pharaoh and the plagues

    Pharaoh refuses to acknowledge the Lord and makes the slaves gather their own straw. God renews his promises (6:2-8) and strikes Egypt with nine plagues, from water turned to blood to three days of darkness, and then announces the death of the firstborn.

  4. Chapters 12-15

    Passover, departure and the crossing of the sea

    Israel celebrates the first Passover, the firstborn of Egypt die and Pharaoh lets the people go. Led by the pillar of cloud and fire, Israel crosses the sea on dry ground while Pharaoh's army drowns, and Moses and Miriam lead the people in song.

  5. Chapters 16-18

    Into the wilderness: manna, water and Amalek

    God feeds the grumbling people with quail and manna and teaches them the Sabbath, gives water from the rock at Massah and Meribah and grants victory over Amalek while Moses' hands are held up. Jethro visits and advises Moses to appoint judges.

  6. Chapters 19-24

    The covenant at Sinai

    At Sinai God offers to make Israel his treasured possession (19:5-6) and speaks the Ten Commandments. The Book of the Covenant applies them to daily life, and the covenant is sealed with blood and a meal before God before Moses goes up the mountain for forty days.

  7. Chapters 25-31

    The pattern of the tabernacle and the priesthood

    God gives Moses detailed instructions for the ark, the table, the lampstand, the tent, the altar, the priestly garments and the ordination of Aaron and his sons. He names Bezalel and Oholiab as craftsmen and gives the Sabbath as a covenant sign.

  8. Chapters 32-34

    The golden calf and the renewal of the covenant

    While Moses is on the mountain, Aaron makes a golden calf. Moses breaks the tablets, judges the sin and intercedes for the people. God reveals his glory and his merciful name, renews the covenant and Moses comes down with a shining face.

  9. Chapters 35-40

    The tabernacle built and filled with glory

    The people give so generously that they must be told to stop, and the craftsmen build everything as the Lord commanded. Moses sets up the tabernacle, and the cloud covers it as the glory of the Lord fills it.

Famous passages in Exodus

  • Exodus 3:1-15

    The burning bush and the name of God

    While tending Jethro's flock at Horeb, Moses sees a bush that burns without being consumed. God calls him by name, tells him to remove his sandals, sends him to Pharaoh and reveals his name, I AM WHO I AM (3:14), linked to the personal name of God, the Lord. It is the foundation of Israel's knowledge of God.

    Study Exodus 3 →

  • Exodus 12:1-28

    The first Passover

    Each household is to kill a lamb without blemish, put its blood on the doorposts and eat it in haste with unleavened bread. When the Lord sees the blood, he will pass over that house (12:13). Israel celebrates this night every year, and the New Testament calls Christ our Passover lamb (1 Corinthians 5:7).

    Study Exodus 12 →

  • Exodus 14:10-31

    Crossing the sea

    Trapped between Pharaoh's army and the sea, the people panic. Moses tells them to stand firm and watch the Lord fight for them (14:13-14). A strong east wind divides the waters, Israel crosses on dry ground and the returning waters cover the Egyptians. It is the Old Testament's great picture of salvation.

    Study Exodus 14 →

  • Exodus 16:1-36

    Manna from heaven

    When the people grumble about food, God sends quail in the evening and, each morning, manna, a fine flake that tasted like wafers made with honey (16:31). It must be gathered daily, with a double portion before the Sabbath. Jesus presents himself as the true bread from heaven (John 6:31-35).

    Study Exodus 16 →

  • Exodus 20:1-17

    The Ten Commandments

    God speaks ten words from Sinai, beginning by reminding Israel that he brought them out of slavery (20:2). The first commands concern loyalty to God, his name and the Sabbath; the rest protect parents, life, marriage, property, truth and the heart. They are repeated in Deuteronomy 5 and summarized by Jesus in the two great commandments.

    Study Exodus 20 →

  • Exodus 32:1-35

    The golden calf

    Tired of waiting for Moses, the people ask Aaron for gods, and he makes a calf from their gold earrings. Moses pleads with God, breaks the tablets, destroys the calf and even asks to be blotted out of God's book rather than see the people destroyed (32:32). It is the classic story of idolatry and intercession.

    Study Exodus 32 →

  • Exodus 34:6-7

    The Lord proclaims his name

    Passing before Moses, the Lord describes himself as merciful and gracious, slow to anger, abounding in steadfast love and faithfulness, forgiving sin yet not ignoring guilt. This self-description is echoed throughout the Old Testament (Numbers 14:18; Psalm 103:8; Jonah 4:2) and is central to the biblical picture of God.

    Study Exodus 34 →

  • Exodus 40:34-38

    The glory fills the tabernacle

    When the tabernacle is finished, the cloud covers the tent of meeting and the glory of the Lord fills it so that even Moses cannot enter. From then on the cloud leads Israel's journeys. The book ends with its goal fulfilled: God dwelling among his redeemed people.

    Study Exodus 40 →

Main themes

Redemption from slavery
God hears the cry of the oppressed (3:7-8), defeats Pharaoh with mighty acts and brings Israel through the sea. Redemption in Exodus is God's work from start to finish; Israel's part is to trust, follow and remember.
Knowing the Lord
Again and again God acts so that Israel, Pharaoh and the Egyptians will know that he is the Lord (6:7; 7:5; 14:4). The book reveals his name (3:14-15) and his character (34:6-7), and it shows that he is greater than every power and every god of Egypt.
Covenant and law
At Sinai God makes Israel his treasured possession, a kingdom of priests and a holy nation (19:5-6). The Ten Commandments and the Book of the Covenant show how a redeemed people should live: the law follows grace, it does not earn it.
God's presence among his people
From the burning bush to the pillar of cloud and fire and the glory that fills the tabernacle (40:34-35), Exodus moves toward God dwelling among his people. Moses tells God that without his presence there is no reason to go on (33:15-16).
True worship and idolatry
Israel is freed from serving Pharaoh to serve the Lord; the same Hebrew verb covers work and worship. The golden calf shows how quickly the redeemed can turn to idols, and the detailed tabernacle shows that God himself defines how he is to be worshiped.
Mediation and intercession
Moses stands between God and the people, speaking God's words to them and pleading for them after the golden calf (32:11-14, 30-32). The priesthood and sacrifices make this need for a mediator part of Israel's daily life.

Main characters

Moses
A Levite saved as a baby and raised in Pharaoh's household. After forty years in Midian (Acts 7:30) he is called at the burning bush, confronts Pharaoh at 80 (7:7), leads Israel out of Egypt, receives the law and intercedes for the people. God speaks with him face to face, as with a friend (33:11).
Aaron
Moses' older brother and spokesman (4:14-16; 7:7). He performs signs before Pharaoh, helps hold up Moses' hands against Amalek (17:12) and is chosen as Israel's first high priest, yet he gives in to the people and makes the golden calf (32:1-6).
Miriam
Sister of Aaron and Moses, called a prophetess (15:20). She leads the women with tambourines and dancing after the crossing of the sea. She is usually identified with the sister who watched over baby Moses on the Nile (2:4-8).
Pharaoh
The unnamed king of Egypt who asks who the Lord is that he should obey him (5:2). He hardens his heart through the plagues, lets Israel go after the death of the firstborn and then pursues them, losing his army in the sea.
Jethro (Reuel)
Priest of Midian and Moses' father-in-law. He gives Moses a home in Midian for many years, later praises the Lord for the deliverance of Israel (18:10-11) and advises Moses to share the work of judging with capable, trustworthy men (18:17-23).
Zipporah
Moses' Midianite wife, daughter of Jethro and mother of Gershom and Eliezer (18:2-4). In a mysterious episode on the way to Egypt, she circumcises her son and the Lord lets Moses alone (4:24-26).
Joshua
The young leader who commands Israel against Amalek at Rephidim (17:9-13). He serves as Moses' assistant, accompanies him on the mountain of God (24:13; 32:17) and remains at the tent of meeting (33:11), preparing to succeed him.
Bezalel and Oholiab
Bezalel of the tribe of Judah is filled with the Spirit of God for craftsmanship in gold, silver, bronze, stone and wood (31:2-5). With Oholiab of the tribe of Dan, he builds the tabernacle and its furnishings (36-39).
Shiphrah and Puah
The Hebrew midwives who feared God and refused Pharaoh's order to kill the newborn boys (1:15-21). God blessed them and gave them families, and Scripture records their names while leaving Pharaoh unnamed.
Pharaoh's daughter
The Egyptian princess who finds the crying baby in the basket, has compassion on him, pays his own mother to nurse him and adopts him, giving him the name Moses because she drew him out of the water (2:5-10).

In-depth study of Exodus

Introduction

Exodus is the story of a rescue that defined a nation. It opens with the descendants of Jacob enslaved in Egypt and closes with the glory of God filling a tent in the middle of their camp. In between come some of the best-known scenes of the Bible: the baby in the basket, the burning bush, the ten plagues, the Passover, the crossing of the sea, the manna, the Ten Commandments and the golden calf.

The English title comes from the ancient Greek translation and means a going out or departure. Yet the book is not only about leaving Egypt; it is about where God was taking his people. His repeated demand to Pharaoh is that he let Israel go so that they may serve the Lord (7:16; 8:1). The goal of the exodus is worship, covenant and life in God's presence.

Who wrote Exodus and when?

The witness of the text

Unlike Genesis, Exodus mentions Moses writing several times. He records the victory over Amalek (17:14), writes down all the words of the Lord before the covenant ceremony (24:4) and is commanded to write the words of the renewed covenant (34:27). Jesus refers to the account of the burning bush as the book of Moses (Mark 12:26). Jewish and Christian tradition therefore attributes the book to Moses, an eyewitness of its events who had been educated in Egypt.

The date debate

The date depends on the date of the exodus. 1 Kings 6:1 places the exodus 480 years before Solomon began building the temple in his fourth year, about 966 BC, which points to about 1446 BC. Others prefer about 1260 BC, noting that Israel built the city of Raamses (1:11) and reading the 480 years as a round figure for twelve generations. On the traditional view, Moses wrote during the forty years in the wilderness. Many modern scholars see a longer process of composition, with the final form reached centuries later.

Literary style and structure

Three settings

The book moves through three settings: Egypt (1:1-15:21), the wilderness journey (15:22-18:27) and Mount Sinai (19-40), where Israel remains through all of Leviticus and the first ten chapters of Numbers.

Narrative, poetry and law

Exodus combines gripping narrative, poetry and law. The Song of the Sea (15:1-18) is widely regarded as one of the oldest poems in the Bible. The Ten Commandments state absolute principles, the Book of the Covenant (20:22-23:33) applies them to cases from daily life, and chapters 25-40 read like an architect's plans.

Patterns with a purpose

  • The plagues. The first nine come in three cycles of three. Plagues one, four and seven begin with Moses meeting Pharaoh in the morning (7:15; 8:20; 9:13), plagues two, five and eight with Moses going in to Pharaoh, and plagues three, six and nine come without warning. The tenth stands apart.
  • The tabernacle told twice. The tabernacle appears first as instructions (25-31) and then as construction, often in the same words (35-40). Between the two stands the golden calf (32-34). The structure makes a point: Israel's sin threatened to cancel God's plan to dwell among them, but through Moses' intercession and God's mercy the plan goes forward.
  • Key words. Watch for the purpose clause that they may know that I am the Lord, and for the words serve, glory and dwell.

Exodus in the story of the Bible

Exodus continues Genesis directly. God had told Abram that his offspring would be enslaved and then come out with great possessions (Genesis 15:13-14), and Israel leaves Egypt with silver, gold and clothing given by the Egyptians (12:35-36). Leviticus then explains how Israel can approach the holy God now living in the tabernacle, and Numbers follows the journey from Sinai to the edge of Canaan.

The exodus becomes the Old Testament's model of salvation. The Psalms retell it (Psalm 78; 105; 106; 114; 136), and the prophets promise a new and greater exodus from exile (Isaiah 43:16-19; Jeremiah 23:7-8). Matthew applies Hosea 11:1, where God calls his son out of Egypt, to Jesus (Matthew 2:15). Paul uses the wilderness generation as a warning (1 Corinthians 10:1-11), Peter applies the titles of Exodus 19:6 to believers (1 Peter 2:9), and Revelation shows the redeemed singing the song of Moses and of the Lamb (Revelation 15:3), with judgments that echo the plagues (Revelation 8; 16).

Exodus and Jesus Christ

  • The Passover Lamb. A spotless lamb died so that the firstborn would live. Paul writes that Christ, our Passover lamb, has been sacrificed (1 Corinthians 5:7); John notes that none of Jesus' bones were broken, as with the Passover lamb (John 19:36; Exodus 12:46); and Jesus instituted the Lord's Supper at a Passover meal (Luke 22:7-20).
  • The blood of the covenant. At Sinai Moses sprinkles the people with the blood of the covenant (24:8). At the Last Supper Jesus speaks of his own blood of the covenant, poured out for many (Mark 14:24).
  • The bread from heaven. Jesus contrasts the manna, which could not prevent death, with himself, the true bread from heaven that gives eternal life (John 6:31-35, 48-51).
  • The rock. Paul says the spiritual rock that followed Israel was Christ (1 Corinthians 10:4).
  • I AM. Jesus takes the name revealed at the bush on his own lips: before Abraham was, I am (John 8:58).
  • The tabernacle. John says the Word became flesh and dwelt among us (John 1:14), using a verb related to pitching a tent, and we have seen his glory. Hebrews presents Christ entering the greater and more perfect tent with his own blood (Hebrews 9:11-12), and the Greek word for propitiation in Romans 3:25 is the word Hebrews 9:5 uses for the mercy seat.
  • Greater than Moses. Moses was faithful as a servant in God's house; Christ is faithful as the Son over it (Hebrews 3:1-6). The law came through Moses; grace and truth came through Jesus Christ (John 1:17).
  • A new exodus. On the mountain of transfiguration Moses and Elijah speak with Jesus about his departure, literally his exodus, which he would accomplish at Jerusalem (Luke 9:31).

Interpretive challenges

Who hardened Pharaoh's heart?

Exodus says both. God announces that he will harden Pharaoh's heart (4:21), Pharaoh hardens his own heart (8:15, 32), and later God hardens it (9:12; 10:1). Many readers see God confirming the choice Pharaoh had already made; others stress God's sovereign freedom, as Paul does when he quotes Exodus 9:16 in Romans 9:17-18. Both affirm that Pharaoh was responsible and that God used even his resistance to make his name known.

How many Israelites left Egypt?

Exodus 12:37 counts about 600,000 men on foot, besides women and children, which suggests two million people or more. Many take the number at face value as a sign of God's miraculous provision. Others suggest that the Hebrew word for thousand can also mean a clan or a military unit, which would produce a smaller total. Both views accept that a large people left Egypt by God's power.

Where did Israel cross the sea, and where is Mount Sinai?

The Hebrew Yam Suph can mean sea of reeds, and the same name is used for the Gulf of Aqaba in 1 Kings 9:26. Proposals for the crossing include the lakes along the modern Suez region, the Gulf of Suez and the Gulf of Aqaba. Mount Sinai is traditionally Jebel Musa, but other sites have been proposed. The text gives enough to trust the event, not enough to settle the map.

Why did the Lord seek to kill Moses?

Exodus 4:24-26 is one of the most puzzling passages in the Bible. The most common explanation is that Moses had not circumcised his son, the sign of the covenant with Abraham (Genesis 17:10-14). The leader of God's covenant people could not neglect the covenant himself, and Zipporah's quick action resolved the crisis.

Little-known facts

  • The Hebrew title is Shemot, Names, taken from the first words of the book, which list the sons of Israel who came to Egypt.
  • The Hebrew midwives Shiphrah and Puah are named, but the mighty Pharaoh never is.
  • The word manna comes from the Hebrew question man hu, what is it? (16:15). A jar of manna was kept before the testimony as a memorial for future generations (16:32-34).
  • When Moses came down from Sinai, his face shone (34:29). The Latin Vulgate rendered the verb as having horns, which is why Michelangelo sculpted Moses with horns.
  • The people gave so much material for the tabernacle that Moses had to order them to stop bringing offerings (36:5-7).
  • Bezalel is one of the first people in Scripture said to be filled with the Spirit of God, and the gift was given for artistic craftsmanship (31:3-5).

How to study Exodus

Reading plan

At one chapter a day, Exodus takes about six weeks. A group can use nine sessions that follow the outline above. Read the tabernacle chapters with a simple diagram of the courtyard, the Holy Place and the Most Holy Place, and compare chapters 25-31 with 35-40 rather than reading them separately.

What to look for

  • Every time God acts so that someone will know that he is the Lord.
  • The order of salvation: rescue first (1-18), then covenant and law (19-24), then God's presence (25-40).
  • Moses as mediator and intercessor, and the places where he points forward to Christ.
  • The grumbling of the people and God's patience in the wilderness.

Teaching it in a Sunday school class or small group

With children, tell the big stories: baby Moses, the burning bush, the plagues, the sea, the manna and the Ten Commandments, always stressing that God keeps his promises. With youth groups, the golden calf opens a conversation about the idols that compete for our trust today. With adults, take time on Exodus 20:2 before 20:3: God reminds Israel that he saved them before he tells them how to live. Close the study by reading Exodus 12 alongside the account of the Last Supper and asking how Jesus fulfills the Passover.

Exodus chapter by chapter

Every chapter of Exodus with a summary, key verses explained, themes, people, questions with answers and application.

Frequently asked questions about Exodus

Who wrote the book of Exodus?

Jewish and Christian tradition attributes Exodus to Moses, who witnessed its events. The book says Moses wrote down the battle with Amalek (17:14), all the words of the Lord (24:4) and the renewed covenant (34:27), and Jesus refers to the account of the bush as the book of Moses (Mark 12:26). Many modern scholars see a longer editorial process behind the book's final form.

When was Exodus written and when did the exodus happen?

On the traditional view Moses wrote during the forty years in the wilderness. The exodus itself is dated in two main ways: about 1446 BC, based on the 480 years of 1 Kings 6:1, or about 1260 BC, based partly on the city of Raamses (1:11) and archaeological arguments. Both views take the exodus as a real historical event.

What is the main message of Exodus?

Exodus teaches that the Lord is the God who saves. He hears the cry of his oppressed people, defeats the powers that enslave them, makes them his own through a covenant and comes to live among them. Redemption comes first, and the law and the tabernacle show how a redeemed people can live with a holy God.

How many chapters does Exodus have and how is it organized?

Exodus has 40 chapters in three settings: Israel in Egypt and the deliverance (1-15), the journey through the wilderness (16-18) and the year at Mount Sinai (19-40). The Sinai section contains the covenant and law (19-24), the instructions for the tabernacle (25-31), the golden calf crisis (32-34) and the building of the tabernacle (35-40).

What were the ten plagues of Egypt?

Water turned to blood, frogs, gnats, flies, the death of livestock, boils, hail, locusts, darkness and the death of the firstborn (Exodus 7-12). Beginning with the fourth plague, the text notes several times that God spared the Israelites in Goshen (8:22-23; 9:26). The plagues were judgments on the gods of Egypt (12:12) and showed that the Lord alone is God.

Where are the Ten Commandments found in the Bible?

They are given in Exodus 20:1-17 and repeated, with small differences, in Deuteronomy 5:6-21. The Bible calls them the ten words (Exodus 34:28), which is the origin of the term Decalogue. God wrote them on two tablets of stone (31:18), and after the golden calf he gave them again on new tablets (34:1).

Who was the Pharaoh of the exodus?

Exodus does not name him. Those who follow the early date (about 1446 BC) often suggest Thutmose III or Amenhotep II; those who follow the late date (about 1260 BC) usually suggest Ramesses II. The text cares less about his name than about the contrast between a king who claimed to be divine and the Lord who is truly God.

What does I AM WHO I AM mean in Exodus 3:14?

When Moses asks for God's name, God answers with a phrase built on the Hebrew verb to be. It points to God as self-existent, unchanging and always present with his people, and it is connected to the personal name of God, Yahweh, usually rendered the Lord (3:15). Jesus echoes it when he says that before Abraham was, I am (John 8:58).

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